Major Developments Major Developments by Calendar Year

The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences has decided to award the Nobel Prize in Physics for 2007 jointly to Albert Fert of France and Peter Grunberg of Germany. It is been awarded for their discovery of an entirely new physical effect known as Giant Magnetoresistance or GMR in 1988. The two scientists had independently discovered the effect in the same year that led to far reaching applications in the field of electronics and nanotechnology.

GMR is a quantum mechanical magnetoresistance effect observed in thin films that are composed of alternating ferromagnetic and nonmagnetic layers. It manifests itself as a significant decrease (typically 10-80%) in electrical resistance in the presence of magnetic field. In the absence of an external magnetic field, the direction of magnetization of adjacent ferromagnetic layers is anti-parallel due to a weak anti-ferromagnetic coupling between the layers resulting in high-resistance magnetic scattering due to electron spin. On applying an external magnetic field, the magnetization of the adjacent ferromagnetic layers is parallel resulting in lower magnetic scattering and lower resistance.

A system of this kind is the perfect tool for reading data from hard disks when information that is coded magnetically should be converted into electric current. In 1997, the first read out head that was based on the GMR was launched and that became the standard technology. A hard disk stores information in the form of microscopic small areas magnetized in different directions. The information is retrieved by a read out head that scans the disk and registers the magnetic changes. If the hard disk is smaller and more compact then it would require a more sensitive read out head to read the information on the disk. A read out head can convert very minute magnetic changes into differences in electrical resistance resulting in changes in the current emitted by the read-out head. The current is the signal from the read out head representing the ones and zeros. GMR can also be considered as one of the first real applications of the promising and evolving field of nanotechnology.

Nobel prize in Chemistry in 2008 has been awarded to Osamu Shimomura (USA), Martin Chalfie (USA), Roger Y. Tsien (USA). Among them Osamu Shimomura shared one-third, Martin Chalfie shared one-third and Roger Y.Tsien shared one-third of Nobel Prize

“for the discovery and development of the green fluorescent protein, GFP”

as described by the Nobel foundation.

In 1962, the work of Osamu Shimomura, Martin Chalfie, Roger Y. Tsien led to the discovery of the proteins aequorine and green fluorescent protein (GFP) in a small glowing jellyfish. Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) is a protein, which exhibits bright green florescence when exposed to blue light. GFP genes are used to make biosensors. In cell and molecular biology, the GFP gene is frequently used for sensing by inducing GFP (which emits high fluorescent green color) into a cell, it becomes easier to recognize cells under microscopy and easier to study them. The GFP gene has been induced in many bacteria, yeast and other fungi, fish (such as zebra), plant, fly, mammalian cells, including human and has been confirmed that any living thing can emit color throughout its body with a single gene (GFP protein). When a GFP is attached to virus, then we can clearly see when virus transmits from one person to other with green glow. If we attach GFP to Protein, then we can clearly see in microscope how it is moving in a cell.

Tsien mainly contributed to know how GFP works and for developing new techniques. In 1994 Tsien showed the mechanism how GFP chromofore is formed in a chemical reaction, which requires only oxygen (without proteins). The GFP gene can be introduced into organisms and maintained in their genome (in a cell) through breeding. Their work confirmed that living organisms can also produce light.

Nobel Prize in Literature in 2008 has been awarded to Jean-Marie Gustave Le Clézio (France and Mauritius) for his article Dans la forêt des paradoxes as it being focused on the environment, especially the desert, as described by Nobel foundation. His article Dans la forêt des paradoxes means forest of paradoxes in English.

He is the first French citizen to receive the Nobel Prize since Gao Xingjian in 2000. When a survey is conducted by French Literary magazine, he was considered as greatest living French language writer. He has published books that include short stories, novels, essays and on the subject of Indian mythology. He brings out different shades of loneliness, different states of mind and nature in his articles. His writing career may be divided into two main periods, from 1963 to 1975. He used to write articles about insanity (permanent disorder of mind) and language. Before his writing career, he used to experiment on himself. In the late 1970s, he stopped experimentation and the mood of his novels changed and started writing articles on childhood, adolescence and traveling, attracting a broader and more popular audience. In 1980, Le Clézio was the first winner of the newly created grand prix Paul-Morand, awarded to his article Désert by the Académie française. Horace Engdahl, Permanent Secretary of the Swedish Academy, commented to reporters after announcement of Nobel Prize to Le Clézio, that Le Clézio is not a French writer. He also said that he is a nomadic (a person who moves from one place to other) writer and doesn’t belong to anywhere. He used to deal with subjects like Exile (form of punishment), Migration,Childhood and Ecology.

Nobel prize in Medicine in 2008 has been awarded to Harald zur Hausen (Geramany), Françoise Barré-Sinoussi (France), and Luc Montagnier (France). Among them, Harald zur Hausen shared half of the Nobel Prize for his contributions as described by the Nobel foundation

“for his discovery of viruses causing cervical cancer”.

In 1983, Zur Hausen identified HPV 16 DNA in cervical cancer tumors. Papilloma virus is an ancient poisonous virus, which causes small tumors on skin. Human papilloma viruses cause cancer to human beings. They affect outer parts of skin and mucous membrane. He was the first to discover individual types of these viruses, and first to separate separated those that cause cervical cancer. This discovery has led to take preventive measures and for the development of a vaccine against cervical cancer.

Françoise Barré-Sinoussi shared one-fourth and Luc Montagnier shared one-fourth of noble prize for discovering HIV (human immunodeficiency virus).

First Françoise Barré-Sinoussi discovered the existence of virus HIV (Human immunodeficiency virus). She constantly works on establishing permanent links between basic research and clinical research in the areas of prevention, clinical care and treatment of disease. Luc Montagnier discovered that HIV virus leads to AIDS (Acquired immune deficiency syndrome). When Montagnier’s group first published their discovery, they said HIV’s role in causing AIDS. Françoise Barré-Sinoussi and Luc Montagnier separated, reproduced lymph node cells from patients, that are swollen and that have symptoms of the early stage of AIDS. Their discovery led to find vaccination for AIDS. Montagnier has published research regarding emission of electromagnetic signals from infected DNA of a person suffering from different diseases.

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The 2008 Nobel Prize in Economics has been awarded to Paul Krugman(USA) “for his study on trading methods and location of economic activity(expanding business)” as described by nobel foundation. He secured nobel prize for his contribution to analyse economies of scale( are the cost advantages that a business obtains due to expansion).All the consumers get satisfied for diversity of business and on location of economic activity(any trade can be done in any country).

Krugman proposed New Trade Theory. According to this theory (for trade between rich and poor country), based on the comparative edge, that is, a company or a firm producing products at a cheaper cost than other company, poor country should export agricultural goods to rich country in exchange for industrial goods. Krugman in his theory explains how each country should specialize in producing a few brands of any given type of product, instead of producing in different types of products. If people of different countries wish to buy BMW (Brand car), then it is not profitable to produce BMWs in all countries, as it is very expensive one. It should be produced in few countries (or one) and should be sold in other countries. He also explains in his theory about transportation costs, which lead to the concept of “Home Market effect”. The concept Home market effect is, a country should have a huge demand, goodwill, should be in a position to produce excess goods and export all the excess goods. Krugman always supports globalization, that is, all national economies coming together to form international economy by trade and foreign direct investment.

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